Moscow's many 'fascisms'
On Victory Day military parades across Russia mark the Soviet Union's defeat of Hitler's fascist regime. For Russians today, fascism is evil embodied - that much is clear. But defining it is less easy for Muscovites.
A loaded word
The Kremlin and its media machine have given "fascism" new and disturbing layers of meaning. Since the revolution in Kyiv, the annexation of Crimea, and the war in Eastern Ukraine, Russian President Vladimir Putin has labeled Kyiv's new pro-European authorities a fascist "junta." The strategy aims to unite Russians behind him. But what does the word "fascism" evoke for Muscovites?
Anya, 18, Moscow
"Fascism is an intolerable thing that happened in the past. It's a scary phenomenon. But we are seeing a renewal of it in Ukraine. That is really scary. And we have to try to avoid history repeating itself 70 years later."
Vladimir, 48, Penza
"Fascists are occupiers - occupiers of foreign territories, foreign ideologies, foreign politics. Fascism is an ideology: the ideology of invaders and captors."
Zurab, 34, Tolyatti
"In my opinion, fascism is a psychological disturbance - like satanism. It's a result of ignorance because people don't understand what government is, what society is. In Ukraine there are a lot of ignorant people - just like in many other places around the world. Fascism also exists in Italy and in Russia. And Marilyn Manson is also a real fascist - and a satanist. He's a very negative person."
Aleksandr, 86, Kostroma
"Fascism is a terrible calamity that existed on our planet: one that unfortunately still exists and is even growing - and not only in Germany, also in Russia and in Ukraine especially. It's a human calamity. The suffering in the concentration camps that I was in … I didn't encounter fascism in books; I encountered it in real life. Fascism needs to be eradicated at any cost."
Vladislav, 19, Moscow
"Fascists are inhuman. There are fascists today as well but they are masked. They don´t show people that they are fascist. Who are they? Just turn on the TV and you´ll see who they are."
Lydia, 67, Moscow
"We have to explain many things to younger generations, like my grandson's. Tell them what fascism is and what it leads to. I lost three uncles to fascism. My father came back from the war an invalid. You can't turn history upside down like people are doing in Ukraine. We're the last generation who can tell our grandchildren what happened. And they're the last generation who will know the truth."